Trait Theories of Personality 😎

          Trait Theories of                           Personality 

Trait Theories 

A trait is defined as "any distinguishing, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another." Accordingly, trait theorists are concerned with the construction of personality tests (or inventories) that pinpoint individual differences in terms of specific traits.

Trait theorists advocated that personality tests will indicate the individual differences in terms of specific traits.

Personality traits are enduring characteristics that describe individual's behaviour. The more consistent the characteristics and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more important that trait is, in describing the individual.

Several attempts have been made to isolate personality traits and in this process, several thousands of traits have been pointed out. But it would better if the traits are confined to a manageable number to understand their impact.

Trait theory perceives personality from the standpoint of understanding traits. Among trait theorists are included Eysenck, Allport, and Cattell.  

Eysenck's Three Dimensions of Personality

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal traits: 

1) Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.

2) Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: This dimension of Eysenck's trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual's tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant. APA duniya me uns

3) Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative.

Allport's Trait Theory

Gordon Allport is of opinion that each individual possesses a set of traits that are not shared by any other individuals. He stresses the uniqueness of personality. Even though there are many traits that are common to most people, there are some traits which are completely unique. Allport calls these unique traits as personal dispositions. These are unique and limited in number. He gives more recognition to the complexity and uniqueness of the human personality. In 1936, Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levels:

1) Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual's whole life, often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the following descriptive terms - Freudian, Machiavellian, Narcissism, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.

2) Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics one might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy, and anxious are considered central traits.

3) Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.

Cattlle's Trait Theory 

Cattell takes a different approach of Allport. There are thousands of word which can be used to describe personality. Cattell listed 171 personality t but concluded that they were superficial and lacking in descriptive power. Wh he sought was a reduced set of traits that would identify underlying patterns. The traits, result was the identification of sixteen personality factors, which he called or primary traits. 

The Big Five Traits Theory 

Both Cattell's and Eysenck's theory have been the subject of considerable research, which has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory offe referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged.

The 'Big Five' Personality Traits Model has attracted the attention of be researchers and managers. The potential value of this framework lies in the fact that it includes an integrated set of traits that appear to be valid predictors of certain behaviours at the workplace. According to Fred Luthans, "Although the five traits are largely independent factors of a personality, like primary colours they can be mixed in countless proportions and with other characteristics as wel to yield a unique personality in whole. However, like colours, one may dominat in describing an individual's personality". It may also be noted that different people have these traits in varying degrees from high to low. 

The big five traits have been found to be related to job performance. The descriptive characteristics of these traits have been summarized as follows: 

1) Extraversion: It reflects a person's comfort level with relationships. Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive, and open to establishing new relationships; Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, less assertive, and more reluctant to begin relationships.

2) Agreeableness: It refers to a person's ability to get along with others. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value having their say or their way. They are co-operative and trust others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than the needs of others.

3) Conscientiousness: It refers to the number of goals that a person focuses on. A highly conscientious person focuses on relatively few goals at one time. He or she is likely to be organized, systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, self-disciplined, and achievement-oriented. A person with a low conscientious nature tends to focus on a higher number of goals at one time. Consequently, the individual is more disorganized, careless, and irresponsible, as well as less thorough and self-disciplined.

4) Emotional Stability: It focuses on an individual's ability to cope with stress. The individual with positive emotional stability tends to be calm, enthusiastic, and secure. A person with low emotional stability tends to be nervous, depressed, and insecure.

5) Openness to Experience: It addresses one's range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovation. They are willing to listen to new ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs, and attitudes in response to new information. On the other hand, people with low levels of openness tend to be less receptive to new ideas and less willing to change their minds. They also tend to have fewer and narrow interests and be less curious and creative.

Type Theories

People are categorised according to distinguishing features. These include college class, academic major, sex, and race. Some personality theorists also group people into distinct, non-overlapping categories that are called personality types.

Personality types are all-or-none phenomena, not a matter of degree. If a person is assigned to one type, he or she could not belong to any other type within that system. Many people like to use personality types in everyday life because they help simplify the complex process of understanding other people. Personality type theory aims to classify people into distinct categories i.e. this type or that. Personality types are synonymous with "personality styles".

The type theories of personality are as follows:

1) Sheldon's trait theory,

2) Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and

3) Spranger's value theory.

Sheldon's Trait Theory

Sheldon defined three typical physical types with three distinctive patterns of personality:

1) Endomorphic with a soft and round body, large trunk, thick neck and relatively short legs. They are generally easy-going, relaxed and sociable in temperament.

2) Mesomorphic with a muscular and athletic type of body stature. They are assertive, aggressive and energetic type of people.

3) Ectomorphic with a fragile body build. They are usually socially withdrawn and over restrained in nature and tend to suffer from inferiority complexes.

The relative-existence of these physical elements indicates specific personality patterns. Corresponding to these aspects, he assumed three aspects of temperament viscerotonia (love of comfort and affection), soamtotonia (physical adventure and risk taking) and cerebrotonia (restraint and inhibition). Although he assumed a very close relationship between respective aspects of structure and personality, there is no evidence to support this view.

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) One approach to applying personality theory in organisations is the Jungian approach and its measurement tool, the MBTI instrument.

Jung suggested that human similarities and differences could be understood by combining preferences. We prefer and choose one way of doing things over another. We are not exclusively one way or another; rather, we have a preference for Extraversion or Introversion, just as we have a preference for right handedness or left-handedness. We may use each hand equally well, but when a ball is thrown at us by surprise, we will reach to catch it with our preferred hand. Jung's type theory argues that no preferences are better than others. Differences are to be understood, celebrated and appreciated. 

The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used and highly regarded system for understanding and interpreting personality and derives most of its underpinning theory from Carl Jung's Psychological types ideas and to a lesser extent the four temperaments (or four humours).

The MBTI model and test instrument was developed by Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers in 1942 after their studies particularly of Carl Jung whose basic concepts relating to this aspect of personality and behaviour. The MBTI model (along with other personality theories and psychometrics models) is particularly useful for:

1) Understanding and developing yourself. 

2) Understanding and developing others.

3) Understanding what motivates others. 4) Understanding others' strengths and weaknesses.

5) Working in teams - by ensuring that all relevant necessary capabilities are represented in the team. 

6) Allocating and agreeing tasks and project responsibilities.

7) Agreeing roles and development with others and for one.

Classification of Individual According to MBTI

1) Extraversion versus Introversion Extrovert (E) people like getting energy from active involvement in events and having a lot of different activities. They are excited when they are around people and they like to energize other people. They like moving into action and making things happen. They generally feel at home in the world. They often understand a problem better when they can talk out loud about it and hear what others have to say. shy person

Introvert (1) people like getting energy from dealing with the ideas, pictures, memories and reactions that are inside their head, in their inner world. They prefer doing things alone or with one or two people they feel comfortable with. They take time to reflect so that they have a clear idea of what they will be doing when they decide to act. Ideas are almost solid things for them. Sometimes, they like the idea of something better than the real thing.

2) Sensing versus Intuition

Sensing (S) type pays attention to physical reality, what they see, hear, touch, taste and smell. They are concerned with what is actual, present, current and real. They notice facts and they remember details that are important to them. They like to see the practical use of things and learn best when they see how to use what they are learning. Experience speaks to them louder than words.

Intuitive (N) type pays more attention to impressions or the meaning and patterns of the information they get. They would rather learn by thinking a problem than by hands-on experience. They are interested in new things and what might be possible, so that they think more about the future than the past. They like to work with symbols or abstract theories, even if they don't know how they will use them. They remember events more as an impression of what it was like, than as actual facts or details of what happened. 

3) Thinking versus Feeling

When Thinking (T) type makes a decision, they like to find the basic truth or principle to be applied, regardless of the specific situation involved. They like to analyze pros and cons and then be consistent and logical in deciding. They try to be impersonal, so they would not let their personal wishes - or other people's wishes-influence them.

Feeling (F) type personality believe that they can make the best decisions by weighing what people care about and the points-of-view of persons involved in a situation. They are concerned with values and what is best for the people involved. They like to do whatever, that will establish or maintain harmony. In their relationships, they appear caring, warm and tactful.

 4) Judging versus Perceiving

Judging (J) type seems to prefer a planned or orderly way of life, like to have things settled and organized, feel more comfortable when decisions are made and like to bring life under control as much as possible.

Since this pair only describes what they prefer in the outer world, they may inside feel flexible and open to new information.

Perceiving (P) type seems to prefer a flexible and spontaneous way of life and they like to understand and adapt to the world rather than organize it. Others see them staying open to new experiences and information.

Since this pair only describes what they prefer in the outer world, inside they may feel very playful or decisive.

Spranger's Value Theory

Spranger propounded the value theory of personality which classifies people into minteligent six types:

1) Theoretical: An intellectual desire to desire to discover one's knowledge, as by becoming a scientist or philosopher.

2) Economic: A businesslike concern with the useful and practical.

3) Esthetic: An emphasis on the enjoyment of form, beauty and the artistic. Social service like

4) Social: A concern for love of other people.

5) Political: A love of power, not necessarily related to the field of politics.

6) Religious: A mystical desire for unity with some higher reality. 

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erickson's stages of psychosocial development.

Freudian Theory/Psychoanalytical Theory 

Freud, the father of psychoanalytic theory, proposed that every individual's personality is the product of a struggle among three interacting forces-the id, the ego, and the superego.

1) ID: The id is the source of strong inborn drives and urges such as aggression and sex. The id operates on what is called the pleasure principle, that is, it acts to avoid tension and seeks immediate pleasure. However, it tends to operate at a very subjective and unconscious level and is not fully capable of dealing with objective reality. Also, many of its impulses are not acceptable to the values of organized society.

2) EGO: The ego comes into being because of the limitations of the id in dealing with the real world. Through learning and experience, the ego develops the individual's capabilities of realistic thinking and ability to deal appropriately with his environment. It operates on what is called the reality principle, which is capable of postponing the release of tension until that time when it will be effectively directed at coping with the external environment. To illustrate, although in hunger individual's id would encourage him to just take food away from his friend, the ego might reason that asking for the food may take longer but may also result in getting a greater portion. Because it serves in this way as the organized focal point for effective action in the environment, the ego is said to be the executive of the personality.

3) Super Ego: The super ego represents societal and personal norms and serves as an ethical constraint on behaviour. It can best be described as the conscience. The super ego provides norms to ego to determine what is wrong or right. However, a person is not aware of the working of the super ego, and conscience is developed by absorption of cultural values and norms of the society.

Freud theorized that there are four universal stages of psycho-sexual development which are decisive in the formation of personality. These stages are: oral, anal, phallic and genital. The first three stages of development extend from birth to five years and are called pregenital stages since the genital zones of the body have not attained a dominant role in personality development.

Erickson Stages of Personality Development

Erickson identified eight stages of life that characterize the unending development of a person. He characterized each stage by a particular conflict that needs to be resolved successfully before a person can move to the next stage. However, these eight stages are not totally separable, and the crises are never fully resolved. Movement between stages is development, as explained below: 

1) Infancy: During the first year of life, a child resolves the basic crisis of trust vs. mistrust. An infant who is cared for in an affectionate way learns to trust other people. Lack of love and affection results in mistrust. This stage makes a serious impact on a child that influences events for remaining life.

2) Early Childhood: In the second and third years of life, a child begins to assert independence. If the child is allowed to control these aspects of life that the child is capable of controlling, a sense of autonomy will develop. If the child encounters constant disapproval by elders a sense of self-doubt and shame is likely to develop.

3) Play Age: The four and five year old seeks to discover just how much he can do. If a child is encouraged to experiment and to achieve reasonable goals, he will develop a sense of initiative. If the child is blocked and made to feel incapable, he will develop a sense of 'guilt and lack of self-confidence'. 

4) School Age: From ages 6 to 12, a child learns many new skills and develops social abilities. If a child experiences real progress at a rate compatible with his abilities, he or she will develop a sense of enterprise. The reverse situation results in a sense of inferiority.

5) Adolescence: The crisis of the teenage years is to gain a sense of identity rather than to become confused about who you are. While undergoing rapid biological changes, the teenager is also trying to establish him or herself as socially separate from the parents. The autonomy, initiative and enterprise developed in earlier stages are very important in helping the teenager to successfully resolve this crisis and prepare for adulthood. 

6) Early Adulthood: The young adult during the twenties faces the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. The sense of identity developed during the teenage years allows the young adult to begin developing deep and lasting relationships.

7) Adulthood: During this stage, the adults face the crisis of generativity versus self-absorption. Self-absorbed persons never develop an ability to look beyond themselves. They become absorbed in career advancement and maintenance; and they never learn to have concern for future generations, the welfare of organisations to which they belong or the welfare of society as a whole. Generative people see the world as much bigger than themselves. Productivity at work and societal advancement become important to them. Through innovation and creativity, they begin to exert influence that benefits their organisations.

8) Mature Adulthood: The person is developed as a highly mature person. He has gained a sense of wisdom and perspective that can really guide the younger generations.